History of Jersey Zoo & Durrell Trust ex-situ / in-situ conservation efforts.

Very interesting thread. My picture was actually taken in Zoo de Mulhouse, where they share exhibit with Red titis and Golden-headed lion tamarins. Is there a significant breeding difference between mixed-species exhibits and regular ones?

 

Hi @Rayane , yes, I know that you took that brilliant shot at Zoo de Mulhouse, I hope you don't mind me using it for this thread.

As I mentioned to @Kakapo I am just including pictures of the animals at different zoos as there are not very many pictures in the gallery of animals specifically at Jersey zoo.

Considering the contributions of the Jersey zoo to the captive populations this means that most pied tamarins,Lac Alaotran gentle lemurs, aye-ayes, Malagasy giant jumping rats and Livingstone's fruit bats have Jersey stock in them anyway (or at least that is how I am rationalizing using photos taken at other zoos in this thread).

Well, that is very interesting what you mention in terms of this species being kept in a mixed-species exhibit because pied tamarins and cotton top tamarins are notorious for not adapting well to these kinds of setups (both can be very aggressive and the pied tamarin is very highly strung and easily stressed).

In fact my next post on the pied tamarin at Jersey will specifically be about the housing of the species at the zoo and some of the difficulties encountered regarding similar issues of grouping and presence / proximity of other Callitrichid species.

 

I was refering to "Photo credit to @AdrianW1963, @Rayane and @gentle lemur (Photos taken at Chester zoo)." But maybe you were refering to Gentle lemur's picture. Anyway, please feel free to use any pictures you want.

I'll stay tuned to see what you have to say about multi-species exhibits and Pied tamarins as I have only seen them in mixed species exhibits (in Paris and in Mulhouse, I don't remember how the ones in Lyon and Zlin-Lesna were housed). I know the ones in Mulhouse breeds them very well, but their exhibit trully is great and I think even though they share it with other species, it is so large and offers so many different climbing and hiding opportunities it allows the pied tamarins to live a normal life. The exhibits in Paris are not as high in term of quality but they only keep 2 males anyway.

Another question I have, maybe you'll know the answer, how do zoos preserve their smaller Callithricids in open-air exhibits from Birds of preys or other predators?

 

That is quite strange for me to hear because I've never seen this tamarin kept in a mixed-species exhibit. I've seen them kept in close proximity to other Callitrichids in zoos in Latin America and Europe but never mixed in groups with other species and the same with the cotton top tamarin.

I know that pied tamarins were once given free-range of woodlands in Jersey but I don't know of any being in open topped enclosures at zoos. These are a species that broadly speaking is very sensitive to stress induced illnesses which are often fatal so the challenge in their husbandry is nearly always mitigating that illness through reducing stress levels in captivity. The tamarins are so highly nervous that they have an innate response to potential predators or disturbances anyway.

In terms of the lion tamarins this is actually the opposite and "positive stress" is to be encouraged in captivity and specifically with regards to priming them for reintroduction to the wild. This is because they essentially become far too habituated and domesticated within zoos and loose all the appropriate responses to predators.

Zoos have tried all kinds of techniques from bird of prey models on zipwires (at Jersey) to fox and wildcat taxidermy (Smithsonian), rubber snake toys being placed around enclosures (Parken zoo) and even live snakes caged in terrariums being placed within enclosures (Smithsonian) to elicit appropriate responses.

Historically the famous reintroductions of the golden lion tamarins in Rio de Janeiro State suffered from a lot of attritition and at times very low survivorship as a result of predation. The same situation occurred with the the black lion tamarin which was reintroduced by Jersey zoo to São Paulo state. This was because the reintroduced animals did not know how to effectively recognise predators like boa constrictors, margay and tayra within their surroundings and so their responses were impaired.

 

It could well be that as you say there is enough space for the tamarins at the Mullhouse zoo within their exhibit (is it the large indoor tropical house one?) that they are able to have their needs met in terms of forming a territory and sticking within it and that this avoids agonistic behaviour with the other species kept from occurring.

I don't know too much about the situation at this zoo but the set-up with the two males kept at Paris may work because they are a non-breeding group. If they did have a breeding pair and were trying to encourage reproduction then a mixed-species exhibit would almost certainly be harmful for promoting this and would likely doom attempts.

The worst ones for mixed species enclosures apart from the pied tamarins are actually the cotton top tamarins (though there has been some examples of successful mixing). Cotton tops are just very aggressive in terms of territoriality and have none of the highly stressed nature of the pied and so will often attack birds or mammals mixed with them regardless of species.

 

Challenges of keeping the pied tamarin (1990-1996)

Housing the pied tamarin



During the early years of keeping the pied tamarins at Jersey there were many doubts as how to best house the animals to encourage health, general wellbeing and breeding and this required research and careful consideration:

"There were therefore three categories of housing under consideration: (1) exposure to the public and close contact with other monkeys, including conspecifics (range); (2) no exposure to the public and limited contact with other monkeys, including conspecifics (BRU); (3) no exposure to the general public and no contact with other monkeys (quarantine/VC)."

It was found that it was best to keep pairs of this strongly territorial animal away from sight of other groups:

"In general, pairs in closer contact with conspecifics, or who were housed in conditions which stimulated territorial and aggressive displays, behaved in ways that suggested they were less relaxed than pairs experiencing less disturbance."

It was also discovered that exposure to the general public was negatively impacting the tamarins through increasing stress levels:

"Recent experiences with pied tamarins at JWPT suggest that other factors may be influencing their health and reproduction. One possible cause is stress resulting from exposure to the general public. Our impression is that some pied tamarins, particularly breeding males and females, treat close approaches to their cages as a threat, perhaps as an encroach ment on their territorial boundary. They react strongly, approaching the cage front with characteristic aggressive chatters and head shaking."

"Visitor density has an effect on pied tamarin behaviour, producing higher levels of behaviour that could be interpreted as indicating stress in animals that are more exposed to visitors. The high levels of threat behaviour observed in the group of females in the squirrel cage supports the staff's impression that this family became more stressed once on exhibit"

Animals kept off-show from the general public and away from other monkeys (whether of the same species or otherwise) showed more resilience in health and lower stress levels:

"Behaviour of male-female pairs of pied tamarins-pairs housed in smaller cages in close contact with other monkeys behaved differently from those in large off-exhibit cages. Further support for the influence of housing on the health and reproduction of pied tamarins comes from the fact that there has been an overall improvement in health and breeding success in the pairs housed off exhibit in the Behavioural Research Unit; for example, there have been no cases of chronic diarrhoea or weight loss, despite the fact that pathogens such as Campylobacter have been isolated on occasion."

The conclusion reached from the behavioural data gathered was:

"The behaviour of male-female pairs was affected by housing conditions, and tamarins on public exhibit showed signs of increased stress. Pied tamarins appear to need rather specialised captive management in com parison to other species"

The compromise reached was therefore to both ensure that the wellbeing of the tamarins while also keeping the animals on display for visitors to see was to better design enclosures which reduced stress levels.

Photo credits to @Joker1706.

Sources: "PIED TAMARINS Saguinus bicolor bicolor AT THE JERSEY WILDLIFE PRESERVATION TRUST: MANAGEMENT, BEHAVIOUR AND REPRODUCTION", Dominic Wormell et al, 1996 (Journal: The Dodo).

 

The construction of new enclosures for the pied tamarins (1995 - 1997)



Given the findings of behavioural research of the species at the zoo the new enclosures for the pied tamarins were considered to be an urgent priority:

"These buildings were felt to need an upgrade by the mid 1990s, and as the Trust was now targeting two new endangered species of callitrichid, one of which, the pied tamarin Saguinus bicolor bicolor, was proving to be particularly sensitive (Wormell et al., 1996; Wormell, 2000), an increase in size was thought very beneficial. Therefore, rather than simply make good, the opportunity was taken to upgrade these enclosures significantly both inside and out, to provide the animals with more spacious, complex environments and also to facilitate improved management practices."

The constructions of the new enclosures was made with the input of the keepers and therefore was driven by pragmatism:

"The improvements were largely designed by the animal keepers, those with the day-to-day knowledge of the practicalities of the care of these animals, with significant input from veterinary and maintenance staff. Using in-house skills and expertise these improvements were achieved at relatively low cost."

Indoor enclosures and enrichment

A greater efficiency in design was created with the new indoor enclosures:

"The number of units has been reduced to create five much larger inside areas in each range (Figure 1). These run from floor to ceiling (averaging 225 cm high x 153 cm wide x 245 cm deep) and crucially are all positioned on one side of the building so that no cages now face each other (Plate 1), a possible source of stress for the animals inherent in the old design."

A newly designed nestbox was provided for the animals:

"Nestboxes are constructed of wood or plastic and are inserted into an opening in the front of each cage, at the top (Figure 2). This allows animals to be shut into the nestbox from outside the cage, by sliding a door over the entrance hole. A large door in the end of the box allows access for cleaning (done only occasionally to preserve scent marks) and to remove animals from the box when catching up.

Enrichment for the animals became a top priority:

"During poorer weather, as the animals spend more time indoors, enrichment must be provided. Impoverished cages lead to detrimental effects on natural behaviour (e.g. Schoenfeld, 1989) so foraging devices are installed in all cages, including hanging bas kets and crates filled with woodwool, leaves, pineapple tops, or other media, and these are scattered with insects daily. Rotten or creeper covered logs are also provided whenever available."

The essential component of heating and lighting for these neotropical primates was ensured by the new design:

"One species maintained at Jersey, the pied tamarin Saguinus b. bicolor, seems particularly susceptible to metabolic bone disease during early development, and appears to need higher than normal levels of vitamin D3 to maintain healthy bone growth. For this reason, a UV spot lamp has been added to an enclosure on a trial basis."

"Banks of bar heaters are positioned on either side of the building and are enclosed within weldmesh guards. Temperature is maintained between 23 °C and 27 °C via thermostats, warmth being crucial for these small-bodied, tropical primates. In addition, wooden plat forms are positioned below 80 Wheat lamps, which provide hot spots for the monkeys to bask beneath. There are two such areas in each enclosure so in large groups all animals can access the extra heat, an important considera tion over the winter months. These hot spots also provide an early indication of illness, as individuals who are unwell usually spend an abnormally large amount of time under the heat lamps."

Outdoor enclosure design

The outdoor enclosures were more than doubled in size :

"The outside areas of the three main build ings have all now been dramatically increased in size (Plate 4). The Eric Young and Miller 13 Outside units, renovated in 1997 and 1998 respectively, now number eight apiece with ground areas ranging from 16 to 44 m."

The planting and landscaping of the enclosures was made with specific reference to the natural habitat of these primates:

"Bromeliads Bilbergia sp. have been attached at varying heights to the sides of the large tree trunks. This not only creates a tropi cal forest appearance in the enclosures, but also provides an ideal and naturalistic foraging / resting area. Bromeliads are characteristic of certain areas of Atlantic rainforest – for example, golden-headed lion tamarins L. chrysomelas in the wild utilise large bromeliads a great deal in a mutualistic relationship (Raboy, 2000), finding in them safe cover, prey items, and water caught in the basal leaves."

"In time trees and shrubs will fill the spaces and there will be less need for ropes. All the enclosures are planted, often with species which bear edible fruits and berries. Along with pollen and nectar from the flowers and, consequently, attraction of insects to the areas, these provide extensive enrichment for the monkeys. Where possible native South American species were used; however, the ability of the animals to utilise the plants should take priority over their geographic origin."



Further furnishings were added to the enclosures to encourage and enable more naturalistic behaviours in the animals to benefit their wellbeing:

"The large vertical trunks and hollow logs provide tremendous opportunities for natural locomotion and foraging. Traditionally, marmoset cages were furnished with branches and small diameter perching but the use of large trunks helps to create the impression of a segment of forest, hopefully offering a reason able representation of the monkeys' natural habitat. Living trees inter-planted between the logs will grow 'in time, providing a further substrate on which to move, and the canopy provides some shade, shelter from inclement weather and security from perceived aerial predators (Plate 6)."

"The ground in the Miller and Eric Young Ranges was sown with wild flowers to encourage invertebrates into the enclosures. However, in the Fody Range it was decided to cover the floors with a layer of bark chippings to give the selected shrubs that were planted a chance to grow without competition from other invasive plants (Plate 6). In addition, numerous logs of varying sizes and states of decay were placed on the ground. These contribute to the illusion of a natural patch of rain forest, where fallen trees are often as much in evidence as living ones."

"An additional benefit is that the rotting logs provide an abundance of small invertebrates and therefore extensive foraging opportunities. Animals like the lion tamarins, Leontopithecus spp., have elongated fingers useful for extracting grubs etc. from such logs. The logs also provide an interface between the ground and the arboreal space which the animals can use as a point from which to scan the ground for prey."

Reducing stress from visitors

The stress response to the tamarins to visitor presence was also dealt with in the new enclosure design:

"Although all the monkeys have private, indoor areas, all outdoor enclosures are on public show. Historically visitors were able to approach and make contact with the cage fronts. Not only did we encounter the usual problems of some irresponsible members of the public occasionally feeding the animals, with the inherent risks this entails, but some of the species housed, such as pied tamarins, are particularly sensitive and this close contact can provoke aggression and stress. We have had instances where the animals have become increasingly stressed by the public and their health suffered because of it (Wormell et al., 1996)."

Stress was now mitigated by barriers keeping visitors at a more tolerable distance and planting:

"Consequently we believe visitors should be kept well back from the on-view cage area. Therefore waist-high barriers now encircle the enclosures (Plate 4) at a minimum distance of 1 m, and on average 1.5 m, and planting between the barrier and the cage fur ther discourages attempts by the public to approach the cage fronts. Trees planted out side the enclosures not only soften the impact of the angular cages and make them less noticeable, but, in conjunction with the plants inside, create a sense of continuity through the mesh. Each range complex in effect becomes a small copse, and from a distance the cages cannot be seen, perhaps ironically making each range resemble a fragment of South American rainforest.

"In the new outside areas, the greatly increased height has helped provide more security for these small arboreal monkeys, which can now climb well above the public. The monkeys are in control of whether or not they have contact and can seek the sanctuary of the indoor area, or another part of their large outside area, if desired, and thus they do not become too stressed."



The visitors also benefited educationally from these new enclosures:

"A further benefit is that as visitors must occasionally peer through the trees that encircle the buildings to glimpse the animals, they are hidden from the monkeys to some extent. Additionally, as visitors have to look for the animals in their larger, more com plex enclosures, the public have to put more effort into observing them, which has been shown in some studies (Price et al., 1994) to encourage more time to be spent at the enclosure and consequently improve educational opportunities."



Photo credits to @molinea, @KevinVar,

Sources: "The design and redevelopment of New World primate accommodation at Jersey Zoo: A naturalistic approach", Dominic Wormell and Mark Brayshaw, 2000 (Journal: The Dodo).

 

Breeding the pied tamarin (1990 -1997)



By 1996 the pied tamarins had bred several times but survivorship of young was extremely low:

"The breeding record of pied tamarins at JWPT has not been ideal. A total of 30 infants has been born, in 19 litters (a mean litter size of 1.58). Four of the five breeding females have become pregnant to date, but only eight offspring are still alive. Most of these belong to M1603; M2040 successfully reared her first litter but subsequently had a stillborn infant. These females are the only two to have reared infants themselves."

Abortion and infant mortality through attacks by the parents were a persistent problem:

"The main cause of infant mortality has been mutilation and killing of infants by their parents shortly after birth – ten of 23 liveborn infants died this way. Two more liveborn infants, although uninjured, died within a few days. Eight infants appear to have been aborted, premature or stillborn; only one of these infants was seen alive, but it was rejected by its mother, and although removed for hand rearing, died shortly afterwards. Of these, all but the last infant had also been partially eaten."

Keepers often had to intervene to rescue rejected infants:

"The surviving infant of M1721 had to be removed from its parents at birth as it was rejected by its mother, sustaining bite injuries in the process. This infant was sucessfully hand reared and introduced to M1603 and her family "

"Until recently, it had not been possible to rescue rejected infants in time to hand rear them. On 2 December 1995, both M1603 and M1721 gave birth at about 15.00hr. M1603produced a singleton female (M2191) which, as usual, she reared competently. M1721, however, as she had done in the past, rejected her twins. One, a female (M2189), was killed by her mother, but the other, a male (M2190), was fortunately found alive on the floor when staff arrived with the after noon feed, and was retrieved."

"Upon being examined it became clear that he had been injured by his mother, receiving bite wounds to his hands and feet, which meant that he would probably not be able to cling on to his foster mother securely enough. He was therefore taken for hand rearing, and given the house name Will iam. No treatment was given for the bite injuries he had received at birth, and after five days the swelling had reduced"

But hand-reared individuals were successfully integrated to foster groups:

"William has developed a good relationship with his tamarin foster family, but nevertheless remains trusting, confident and relaxed with humans. He has not started to bite people, as have other hand-reared animals who were rejected' by their human foster parents as soon as they were able to cope alone in a foster group. Our experience with William has led us to believe that it is very important not to terminate abruptly all contact with human foster parents, but that a gradual reduction in human contact as the infant gains confidence in its relationships with other monkeys results in the animal developing good relationships with both staff and its foster group."




Photo credits to @gentle lemur and @Newzooboy.

Sources: - "RELATIONSHIPS IN MALE-FEMALE PAIRS OF PIED TAMARINS Saguinus bicolor bicolor", Dominic Wormell, 1994 (Journal: The Dodo).

- "PIED TAMARINS Saguinus bicolor bicolor AT THE JERSEY WILDLIFE PRESERVATION TRUST: MANAGEMENT, BEHAVIOUR AND REPRODUCTION", Dominic Wormell et al, 1996 (Journal: The Dodo).

- EAZA Best Practice Guidelines for the Callitrichidae - 2017.

 

Some videos from the Durrell trust on the Pied tamarin.

Ex situ

Overview:

Handrearing infants:





In-situ

 

Wrap up of the pied tamarins at Jersey (1990 to the present)



The move of the species to the larger new enclosures in 1998 has led to an improvement in breeding but issues such as rejection of infants that require handrearing remains a problem.

The improvement in housing has also led to a significant reduction in stress and stress related illnesses and mortality of animals during the past 20 years.

However, this sensitive species continues to be carefully managed long-term ex-situ at Jersey and research to improve its husbandry needs continues to be a priority and this is very much an ongoing project that is far from finished.

The Durrell trust continue to heavily support the in-situ conservation of the species in Manaus, Brazil.

Photo credit to @vogelcommando (photo taken at Apenheul primate park).

 

The arrival of the Madagascar flat backed tortoise at Jersey zoo (1990)


Background to the arrival of the tortoise

The flat backed tortoise arrived at Jersey zoo as a result of the famous 1990 expedition which also brought back the aye-aye, Lac Alaotran gentle lemur and the giant jumping rat.

The rationale for the capture of this animal was the following:

"In 1989 the JWPT received permission to mount an expedition to capture specimens for breeding in Jersey. An initial list of 32 species warranting captive breeding was agreed. The list was reduced according to several criteria, including assumed degree of threat to the species, accommodation possibilities in Jersey and the logistics of travel and animal care by a four person team over a four month period in Madagascar."

The area of capture of the tortoise was to take place in the Kirindy forest of North-Eastern Madagascar:

"The mongoose, the rat and the tortoise, as well as the more widely distributed species of lizard and snake targetted by the expedition, occur in the Kirindy Forest, which lies about 70km north-northeast of Morandava and is held as a 10,000ha forestry concession by a Swiss aid agency, the Cooperation Suisse. In collaboration with the DEF, experiments in selective logging and forest regeneration are under way at Kirindy, as well as a training programme for Malagasy foresters."

In 1990 the forest was under severe anthropogenic pressures from deforestation and time was therefore of the essence to collect the species:

"The dry deciduous forests of the west of Madagascar have mostly disappeared through slash-and-burn cultivation, the creation of pasture for livestock and uncontrolled burning (Langrand, 1990). These pressures continue to threaten the remaining forest patches and their fauna, several species of which are highly localised. The narrow-striped mongoose is found only in the central west coast region (Schreiber et al., 1989), and the giant jumping rat and the flat-tailed tortoise are believed to have distribution ranges of 1000km (Cook et al., 1991) and 150km (Kuchling and Bloxam, 1988), respectively."

Catching the tortoises

The capture of the tortoises (which are known as "kapidolo" in the Malagasy language which translates as "ghost tortoise", due to them frequently being found in graveyards) was made easier by the light rainfall in the Kirindy forest during the time of the trip which made the tortoises more active:

"The probable reason is that as the main rains of summer were late, these species remained inactive, although light showers at the beginning of the visit were sufficient to stimulate the flat-tailed tortoise to activity."

A total of 10 animals were captured by hand. However, only a total of six animals were selected to be taken to Jersey zoo, these were three females and three males which were deemed to be of sound health and reproductively viable:

"Flat-tailed tortoises were caught by hand as opportunities arose. They were found early in the morning in the forest litter. Ten in all were captured, of which six of the desired sexes and in the best condition were kept (see Table II). They were housed together in a metal grill Carrier Crate 92x69x64cm placed in the shade on the forest floor and were fed on fruits, vegetables and the fallen flowers of native trees and shrubs, favouring the last."

The return to Jersey

After a short stay at the Tsimbazaza zoo the tortoises were soon prepared for their journey to their new home in Jersey:

"Wooden travelling crates were constructed by the Parc Tsimbazaza carpenters according to IATA (International Air Transport Association) regulations. The animals were put into their crates by Q. Bloxam and L. Durrell early on 14 December and the expedition team and animals departed on the commercial flight to Mauritius that afternoon."

The tortoises arrived in Jersey zoo and work immediately began on researching their husbandry needs in captivity:

"All the animals that arrived at JWPT settled in extremely well. Research projects are currently underway on all three mammal species and on the flat-tailed tortoise."



Photo credit to @Ding Lingwei (photo taken at the Dallas Zoo).

Source: "Notes on the Durrell Expedition to Madagascar September-December 1990", Lee Durrell, 1990 (Journal: The Dodo) & "The aye-aye and I", Gerald Durrell, 1990.

 

The housing and breeding of the tortoises (1990 to the present)



Housing the "ghost tortoise"

The Madagascar flat tailed or "ghost" tortoise as it is commonly known in Madagascar has been kept at Jersey zoo for thirty years. As with other challenging species like the pied tamarin many lessons have been learned from the initial years of keeping the species up to the present day.

The current enclosure setup consists of the following:

"At the Jersey Zoo the tortoises are kept in open topped enclosures constructed of fiberglass covered plywood. Males are kept individually in pens measuring 0.5 m x 0.5 m, while groups of females are kept in larger enclosures (4.0 m x 0.5 m) (GIBSON AND BULEY 2004). All tanks have sloping floors and drainage holes. The substrate consists of a five centimeter thick drainage layer of volcanic pebbles covered with capillary matting for drainage and a two to three centimeter thick layer of sandy substrate. The females’ enclosures feature an area with deeper, slightly dampened sandy soil (10-12 cm) intended for nesting. All pens are structured with roots, logs, different robust plants such as Ficus, Sansevieria, Maranta, Syngonium and Yucca."

Conditions of temperature, lighting and humidity are critically important factors in maintaining these animals and the Jersey tortoises are given such that closely replicate the environmental conditions they experience in the wild in Madagascar:

"Replication of the extreme seasonal climatic variation is essential for the maintenance of this species in captivity. The animals at Jersey Zoo were given a sixmonth shift in their seasons when they were brought into captivity. The rationale for this was that the hot, wet season would then coincide with the European summer and the cooler, dry season with the winter. Although the animals are maintained in a heated, well-insulated room, obviously it is easier to provide the appropriate seasonal conditions when there is some correspondence to the local climate."

The diet is carefully managed and consists of the following:

"At the beginning of the rainy season, the diet consists almost exclusively of mushrooms such as oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), shiitake (Lentinula edodes), and beefsteak fungus (Fistulina hepatica) for about two weeks. Later, dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), fruits and vegetables such as tomato, pear, papaya, chicory and pakchoi as well as small amounts of low-fat cat food are accepted. Fruits are sprinkled with a vitamin powder (Nutrobal). Food is provided daily, with leafy vegetables, lettuce, and fruit three to four times a week, mushrooms twice a week, and cat food once or twice a month. For calcium supply cuttlefish bone is permanently available. Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), whose leaves are also eaten, are planted in pots or directly into the enclosure."



Breeding the "ghost tortoise"

Jersey zoo was the first zoo outside of Madagascar to successfully breed the species in captivity. However, the attempt at breeding the tortoises has met with severe challenges and is a work in progress.

In 2004 a report by the zoo suggested that in the 15 years that the species had been maintained at Jersey breeding had only happened on three occasions resulting in three hatchlings:

"Pyxis planicauda is rarely maintained in captive husbandry and breeding success is still extremely low. After 25 years of keeping in three renowned zoos (Jersey, Bronx and Knoxville) GIBSON AND BULEY 2004 (2004) report only four hatchlings outside of Madagascar (three in Jersey Zoo and one in Knoxville Zoo)."

Wrap up



Jersey zoo continues to maintain the Madagascar flat tailed tortoise and research its husbandry for the purpose of captive breeding to this day.

The Durrell Trust also continues to support in-situ work in the Kirindy forest with anti-poaching patrols and ex-situ work with a breeding centre for the species in its native range of Madagascar.

Photo credits to @hemsley, @Zooish and @Casuarius_casuarius.

Source: -"KEEPING AND BREEDING THE MALAGASY FLAT-TAILED TORTOISE PYXIS PLANICAUDA (GRANDIDIER, 1867)", Viktor Mislin, 2018.

- "Biology, captive husbandry, and conservation of the Malagasy flattailed tortoise, Pyxis planicauda Grandidier, 1867.", Richard Gibson , 2004 (Journal: Herpetological Review).

 

So, two reptiles, a bird and five mammals, not bad.

Up next another charismatic little mammal and one I'm very fond of.

 

The arrival of the black lion tamarin at Jersey zoo (1990)


In 1990 three breeding pairs of the black lion tamarin were sent from the Rio de Janeiro Primate Center to the Jersey zoo.

This was a very significant moment as it made Jersey the first zoo outside of Brazil to hold this critically endangered species.

The zoo had been given permission by several Brazilian authorities to coordinate the International captive breeding programe for the black lion tamarin beyond the borders of Brazil.

The rationale for this move was the following:

"The species is considered to be Critically Endangered (Hilton-Taylor, 2000), with a population of approximately 1,000 individuals in the wild confined to nine forest patches The role of the captive population is there (Valladares-Padua et al., 2000). The main population occurs in the protected reserve of Morro do Diabo State Park (31,000 ha). Due to the fragmentation of the remaining wild population, intensive management is needed if it is to remain viable."

A novel approach to the conservation of these little primates had been developed:

"A new approach to the conservation of BLTs involving metapopulation management has therefore been adopted. This involves the collective management of all the subpopulations, wild and captive, and will ensure the movement of genes throughout the population as a whole by translocations, managed dispersal, and reintroduction of captive-bred individuals (Ballou and Valladares-Padua, 1997; Valladares-Paduaet al., 2000)."

"The captive population was and is intended to be managed in a relatively small number of institutions and kept at a relatively low number of individuals, in contrast to the captive breeding programmes for the golden headed lion tamarin L. chrysomelas (GHLT) and golden lion tamarin L. rosalia (GLT). The captive BLT population is being maintained as a nucleus subpopulation of the metapopulation, with a maximum number of 150 animals and a genetic goal of maintaining 95% of the wild diversity (Ballou and Valladares-Padua, 1997)."

From the very start the effort to conserve the black lion tamarin at Jersey zoo was to see a closer and far more fluid relationship between in-situ and ex-situ conservation than in past conservation interventions:

"In theory, animals will be reintroduced into the wild from captivity and wild animals moved into the captive population to maintain the flow of genes between the wild and captive subpopulations. The role of the captive population is therefore central to this strategy, and, in a sense, zoos are acting like other, safe, forest fragments."

Photo credit to @Rick J.

Sources: "Reproduction and management of black lion tamarins Leontopithecus chrysopygus at Jersey Zoo", Dominic Wormell and Eluned Price, 2001 (Journal: The Dodo).

 

Challenges in breeding the black lion tamarin (1990-1996)


The black lion tamarin proved to be a far more physiologically resilient species than the pied tamarin in adapting to life at Jersey.

Breeding the black lion tamarin (1990-1999)

A year after their arrival at Jersey zoo the first black lion tamarin born outside of Brazil was born, however, ensuring continued breeding success was to to be an uphill struggle and far more difficult than with the closely related golden-headed and golden lion tamarins also held at the zoo.

All three of the founding females were to breed throughout the 1990's but pregnancies were fraught with complications and there was a sadly frequent incidence of loss of infants to premature or stillbirths.

"Although black lion tamarins at Jersey Zoo have had few health problems, they have experienced more frequent reproductive problems than other lion tamarin species – two of five females have not bred, and there have been higher rates of premature births, stillbirths and - losses of live-born neonates."

"These difficulties are not attributable to poor parental behaviour and have occurred despite a considerable improvement in housing for callitrichids at Jersey in recent years (Wormell and Brayshaw, 2000). Furthermore, there is no evidence that those females who do breed have difficulty conceiving as interbirth intervals were shorter on average than those of golden lion tamarins, though longer than in golden-headed lion tamarins."

One suspected factor in the poor breeding success was believed to be a dietary component:

"The sorts of problems that have emerged with BLTs at Jersey suggest that there may be some deficiency in the diet that has been provided for the species in the past. Although all Leontopithecus are adapted to exploit mature forest (Rylands, 1996) — unlike the other callitrichid genera, Callithrix, Cebuella, Mico and Saguinus, which utilise secondary or inundated forest – there is some indication that black lion tamarins may have a higher protein requirement."

Another suspected cause was reproductive suppression of ovulation in some of the females:

"The reasons for the lack of breeding in a further two females are unclear, and research is currently underway on ovarian function in one of these females as part of broader studies of reproduction and contraception in BLTs. One possibility is that as Jersey Zoo maintains large numbers of lion tamarins, the close proximity of other groups, even if of other species, may affect reproductive function."

Nevertheless, in spite of these setbacks to the captive breeding programe the Jersey black lion tamarins continued to breed. The total number of black lion tamarins born between 1990 and 1999 totaled 57 of which 32 of the infants survived and unlike with the pied tamarin there was no rejection of offsprings by parents.

Soon the Jersey BLT's were being sent to other zoos cooperating in the breeding programe in the UK such as Bristol, Chester, Belfast.

Later zoos in France, Germany, Portugal, the United States and Australia also began to receive Jersey tamarins and the population gradually began to expand in captivity.



Photo credits to @gentle lemur and @Writhedhornbill (Photos taken at Chester zoo).

Sources: "Reproduction and management of black lion tamarins Leontopithecus chrysopygus at Jersey Zoo.", Dominic Wormell and Eluned Price, 2001 (Journal: The Dodo).

 

Housing the black lion tamarin (1990-2000)



As with the pied tamarins, the black lion tamarins were originally housed in enclosures that had been built for small monkeys during the 1970's.

However, by the mid 1990's with advances in the knowledge of Callitrichid husbandry and two high profile endangered species being housed it was felt that new enclosures were required.

Indoor enclosures and enrichment

A greater efficiency in design was created with the new indoor enclosures:

"The number of units has been reduced to create five much larger inside areas in each range (Figure 1). These run from floor to ceiling (averaging 225 cm high x 153 cm wide x 245 cm deep) and crucially are all positioned on one side of the building so that no cages now face each other (Plate 1), a possible source of stress for the animals inherent in the old design."

A newly designed nestbox was provided for the animals:

"Nestboxes are constructed of wood or plastic and are inserted into an opening in the front of each cage, at the top (Figure 2). This allows animals to be shut into the nestbox from outside the cage, by sliding a door over the entrance hole. A large door in the end of the box allows access for cleaning (done only occasionally to preserve scent marks) and to remove animals from the box when catching up.

Enrichment for the animals became a top priority:

"During poorer weather, as the animals spend more time indoors, enrichment must be provided. Impoverished cages lead to detrimental effects on natural behaviour (e.g. Schoenfeld, 1989) so foraging devices are installed in all cages, including hanging bas kets and crates filled with woodwool, leaves, pineapple tops, or other media, and these are scattered with insects daily. Rotten or creeper covered logs are also provided whenever available."

The essential component of heating for these neotropical primates was ensured by the new design:

"Banks of bar heaters are positioned on either side of the building and are enclosed within weldmesh guards. Temperature is maintained between 23 °C and 27 °C via thermostats, warmth being crucial for these small-bodied, tropical primates. In addition, wooden plat forms are positioned below 80 Wheat lamps, which provide hot spots for the monkeys to bask beneath. There are two such areas in each enclosure so in large groups all animals can access the extra heat, an important considera tion over the winter months. These hot spots also provide an early indication of illness, as individuals who are unwell usually spend an abnormally large amount of time under the heat lamps."

Outdoor enclosure design



The outdoor enclosures were more than doubled in size :

"The outside areas of the three main buildings have all now been dramatically increased in size (Plate 4). The Eric Young and Miller 13 Outside units, renovated in 1997 and 1998 respectively, now number eight apiece with ground areas ranging from 16 to 44 m."

The planting and landscaping of the enclosures was made with specific reference to the natural habitat of these primates, the Atlantic rainforest:

"Bromeliads Bilbergia sp. have been attached at varying heights to the sides of the large tree trunks. This not only creates a tropi cal forest appearance in the enclosures, but also provides an ideal and naturalistic foraging / resting area. Bromeliads are characteristic of certain areas of Atlantic rainforest – for example, golden-headed lion tamarins L. chrysomelas in the wild utilise large bromeliads a great deal in a mutualistic relationship (Raboy, 2000), finding in them safe cover, prey items, and water caught in the basal leaves."

"In time trees and shrubs will fill the spaces and there will be less need for ropes. All the enclosures are planted, often with species which bear edible fruits and berries. Along with pollen and nectar from the flowers and, consequently, attraction of insects to the areas, these provide extensive enrichment for the monkeys. Where possible native South American species were used; however, the ability of the animals to utilise the plants should take priority over their geographic origin."

Further furnishings were added to the enclosures to encourage and enable more naturalistic behaviours in the animals to benefit the wellbeing of the lion tamarins:

"The large vertical trunks and hollow logs provide tremendous opportunities for natural locomotion and foraging. Traditionally, marmoset cages were furnished with branches and small diameter perching but the use of large trunks helps to create the impression of a segment of forest, hopefully offering a reason able representation of the monkeys' natural habitat. Living trees inter-planted between the logs will grow 'in time, providing a further substrate on which to move, and the canopy provides some shade, shelter from inclement weather and security from perceived aerial predators (Plate 6)."

"The ground in the Miller and Eric Young Ranges was sown with wild flowers to encourage invertebrates into the enclosures. However, in the Fody Range it was decided to cover the floors with a layer of bark chippings to give the selected shrubs that were planted a chance to grow without competition from other invasive plants (Plate 6). In addition, numerous logs of varying sizes and states of decay were placed on the ground. These contribute to the illusion of a natural patch of rain forest, where fallen trees are often as much in evidence as living ones."

There was an emphasis on encouraging the black lion tamarin to engage in hunting invertebrate prey (an activity which it spends most of its day doing in the wild) through gleaning the foilage and foraging for food within the enclosures:

"An additional benefit is that the rotting logs provide an abundance of small invertebrates and therefore extensive foraging opportunities. Animals like the lion tamarins, Leontopithecus spp., have elongated fingers useful for extracting grubs etc. from such logs. The logs also provide an interface between the ground and the arboreal space which the animals can use as a point from which to scan the ground for prey."


Photo credit to @KevinVar and @gentle lemur (photographs of tamarin taken at Bristol zoo).

Sources: "The design and redevelopment of New World primate accommodation at Jersey Zoo: A naturalistic approach", Dominic Wormell and Mark Brayshaw, 2000 (Journal: The Dodo).

 

Newquay Zoo has had a mother and daughter pair of Pied Tamarins on an island for some years. At one time they had Pygmy Marmosets with them, but I don’t think that succeeded long term.

 

I think that mother and daughter mixes can be fine but with tamarins there can often be some quite severely agonistic behaviour and interaction between mothers and daughters when kept in breeding groups.

Reproductive function is usually suppressed in the subordinate female offspring through the pheromones of the dominant / breeding female.

However, when this doesn't work and the young females ovulate then the mother will typically quite viciously attack the daughter and drive her out of the group / cause her to disperse but of course in zoo enclosures this requires human intervention as escape isn't possible.

I'm not suprised about the pygmy marmoset / pied tamarin mix not working out long-term as the pied tamarin can be quite aggressive and just doesn't seem to do very well in mixed species exhibits.

 

The woodland experiment (1998 to the present)



In 1998 the decision was taken to give the black lion tamarins the ability to roam freely within an area of woodland at the zoo where they were provisioned with food and an indoor quarters.

This decision was taken based on the obvious need to prime these animals towards naturalistic behaviours such as climbing trees,establishing territory, foraging, hunting prey and avoiding and recognizing predators.

These are all skills that are very important for Callitrichids that are reintroduced to the wild and hard lessons had been learned during the 1980's with the reintroduction of golden lion tamarins to the Atlantic rainforest of Rio de Janiero :

"The impetus for the project came from the Trust’s involvement in the conservation programmes for the lion tamarins Leontopithecus spp of Brazil, which have involved reintroduction and translocation of both whole groups and individuals (e.g. Beck et al., 1991, 2002; Valladares-Padua et al., 2000; Kierulff et al., 2012), and have highlighted the problems faced by captive-born animals in adapting to the wild."

"Thus, one of the primary motivations behind the release of callitrichid groups into a woodland at the park was the opportunity to study the adaptation process, and potential training methods to improve the success of reintroduction programmes for marmosets and tamarins."

Tamarin woods



The Jersey woodland or "tamarin woods" as it has become known as consisted of a number of tall mature trees and dense understory in some areas. This roughly resembles the vegetation structure of the edge habitat that the species occupies in the wild in Brazil.

This was not an unusual development and many Callitrichid species had been housed this way experimentally at Jersey. The first species to be introduced to this free-range lifestyle had been a group of cotton top tamarins in 1989 and through the 1990's this was followed by small numbers of golden headed lion tamarins, silvery marmosets, Goeldi's monkey and golden lion tamarins.

The survival rates and breeding success of the tamarins that were given the option of being free-range in the woods had been closely studied and was found to be comparable or indeed better to that of tamarins held in enclosures at Jersey and other zoos:

"Of the 52 infants born at Durrell, 39 (75%) survived (Table 1). Adding the surviving young to the 84 individuals in the release groups, 123 monkeys have lived in Durrell’s free-ranging environment. Survival rates in the freeranging groups are comparable to or better than those from callitrichids in enclosures at Durrelll, Zürich and elsewhere (52–76% in five species: Price & McGrew, 1990; Price, 1998; Wormell & Price, 2001; Steinmetz et al., 2011)."

Similarly the breeding success of tamarins at semi liberty in the woods was also significantly higher than for individuals kept within enclosures:

"Reproductive success of the freeranging groups at both Durrell is as high or higher than for callitrichids housed in more traditional enclosures (Price, 1998; Wormell & Price, 2001; Steinmetz et al., 2011)."

BLT history in tamarin woods

Seven individuals consisting of a breeding pair of black lion tamarins and their five offspring were slowly introduced to the woodland environment. After a period of acclimatization were eventually allowed a free-range lifestyle and lived freely within the woodlands for two years, (barring a temporary return to their enclosure when the breeding male injured himself in a fall from a tree).

Since that time the experiment in free-ranging black lion tamarins continues and various groups have been given access to the tamarin woods. As a result this continues to inform research into both ex-situ and in-situ conservation for the species :

"Durrell’s woodland has proved itself as a training ground not only for the monkeys but also for many staff and students; nearly every release has produced at least one research project. Research has been taken beyond the adaptation process to begin looking at facets of behaviour such as vigilance and the potential for training tamarins to respond appropriately to (and to avoid) predators."



Photo credits to @gentle lemur,@Writhedhornbill and @KevinVar.

Source: "Managing free-ranging callitrichids in zoos", E.C. Price et al, 2012 (Journal: International Zoo Year Book).

 

Adelaide zoo became part of the International breeding program in 1980 obtaining 5 pairs from the National zoo in Washington DC. They were the only colony in the country at that time. I often wonder why in later years after they got a number of other rare Tamarin species including the Black Tamarin species then drop them out of the collection. In a small zoo like Adelaide, small species like these would be an ideal choice for a zoo with a small land area also taking part in the international breeding program.